I. Controversial points: Dawn

The Canon lacks a clear-cut definition of precisely when dawn takes place. This lack is especially felt in connection with NP 2, but it also affects a number of other rules as well. The V/Sub-commentary is the only commentarial text that tries to define dawn with any precision. Its definition: "'Dawn' should be understood as the distinctive radiance of increasingly intense red preceding sunrise." This definition is generally followed in Burma, although it is not of much help when the horizon is not visible. The Thais have worked out a more pracitcal measure by defining dawn as the period just prior to the point when, by natural light, one can see the lines in one's hand while holding it out at arm's length. On a bright moonlit night, they define dawn as just prior to the point where leaves appear green. In Sri Lanka, however, dawn is defined as happening much earlier, when the first faint white light on the horizon preceding sunrise can be discerned from Adam's Peak, the tallest mountain on the island. This means that Sri Lankan monks recognize dawn as happening at a time when it is still quite dark outside. There is evidence from the Canon, however, suggesting that this interpretation places dawn at a point too early in the day.

Pacittiyas 37 & 38, taken together, require that a bhikkhu not accept alms before dawn. If he did go for alms before dawn, he would not be able to eat any of the food he accepted at that time, since Pacittiya 37 forbids him from eating before dawn, and Pacittiya 38 forbids him from eating after dawn any food received before dawn of that day. If the first reddening or whitening on the eastern horizon did count as dawn, then bhikkhus would be able to go for alms when it is still dark, since the dark of night does not lift until the second reddening and whitening. A passage in the Latukikopama Sutta (M. 66), however, states specifically that once the rules were established, one of their benefits was that they prevented bhikkhus from going for alms in the dark. This suggests that in the time of the Canon, the first reddening and whitening did not count as dawn. The passage runs as follows:

"(Ven. Udayin -- the good Udayin, not the lax Udayin of the first five sanghadisesas -- is addressing the Buddha:) 'It used to be, venerable sir, that we ate in the evening, in the morning, and in the afternoon. Then there was the time when the Blessed One addressed the bhikkhus, saying, "Come now, bhikkhus, give up this afternoon meal." Because of that, I felt sorry and upset: "The fine staple and non-staple food that householders give us in the afternoon -- the Blessed One has us give them up! The Sugata has us abandon them!" But on considering our love and respect for the Blessed One, our sense of shame and conscience, we gave up that afternoon meal, and ate (only) in the evening and in the morning.

"'Then there was the time when the Blessed One addressed the bhikkhus, saying, "Come now, bhikkhus, give up this evening meal." Because of that, I felt sorry and upset: "The more highly regarded of our two meals -- the Blessed One has us give it up! The Sugata has us abandon it!" It has happened, venerable sir, that a man has gotten ingredients for curry during the day and has told his wife, "Come, let's put this aside, and we'll all have it together in the evening." Almost all cooking is done at night, sir, and very little during the day. But on considering our love and respect for the Blessed One, our sense of shame and conscience, we gave up that evening meal.

"'It used to be that bhikkhus going for alms in the dark gloom of night would walk into a mud hole, fall into a cesspool, stumble into a thorny hedge, stumble into a sleeping cow, encounter teenage gangs on the way to or from a theft, and be propositioned by women. Once it happened when I was going for alms in the dark gloom of night that a certain woman washing a bowl saw me by a lightning flash. As soon as she saw me, she shrieked out in terror, "I'm doomed! A demon is after me!"

"'When she said that, I said to her, "I'm not a demon, sister. I'm a bhikkhu waiting for alms."

"'"Well then you're a bhikkhu whose mom is dead and pop is dead. It would be better for you, bhikkhu, that your belly be cut open with a sharp butcher's knife, than that you go prowling around for alms for your belly's sake like this in the dark gloom of night!"

"'When I remember this, sir, the thought occurs to me: "There are so many painful things the Blessed One has rid us of, and so many pleasant ones he has provided; so many unskillful things he has rid us of, and so many skillful ones he has provided!"'"

This shows clearly that once the rules were in effect, bhikkhus were saved from the dangers of going for alms in the dark; and suggests that dawn can be no earlier than the distinct reddening of the eastern sky.

II. Controversial points: Sugata measures

The Commentary to Sanghadisesa 6 states that the Buddha's cubit -- the distance from his bent elbow to the tips of his fingers -- was three times that of a normal man. This puts all the Sugata measures -- based on the Buddha's cubit, handspan, and breadth of his fingers -- at three times normal length and makes the Buddha freakishly tall.

How the Commentary arrived at this figure is hard to say, for the Vinaya Mukha cites several passages from the Canon showing that the Buddha, though tall, was not abnormally so. The most telling passage is the one from the Samaññaphala Sutta (D. 2), in which King Ajatasattu visits the Buddha while the latter is sitting in an assembly of bhikkhus, and he is unable to tell which one of the assembly the Buddha is. This, of course, is meant to indicate the king's spiritual blindness, but if the Buddha had been remarkably tall, it would have certainly been part of his general reputation, and the king would not have had to ask.

The Vinaya Mukha then goes on to suggest a variety of ways of calculating the Buddha's measurements, the most useful being to assume the Buddha's cubit to be 50 cm. This, at least roughly, fits a number of passages from the Canon, as follows:

According to the Lakkhana Sutta (D. 30), the spread of the Buddha's arms, outstretched, was equal to his height. Since a person's cubit is one-fourth the spread of his outstretched arms, this would put the Buddha's height at 2 meters, or approximately 6 feet 7 inches. The origin story to Pacittiya 92 states that his half-brother, Nanda, was four fingerbreadths shorter than he, and that when bhikkhus saw him coming from afar, they would mistake him for the Buddha, partly on the basis of his tall height. One fingerbreadth is said to be 1/24 cubit, or a little more than 2 cm. by this reckoning, which would put Nanda at 1.92 meters, or approximately 6 feet 4 inches tall.

These figures would seem to fit the information in the Canon fairly well, in that they allow for both Nanda and the Buddha to be tall, but not outlandishly so.

Another pair of passages supporting these measurements is the ruling under Pacittiya 87 that the legs of a bhikkhu's bed not be more than eight Sugata fingerbreadths tall, taken together with the passage in the Cullavagga (VIII.1.5) that one should grope under the bed with one's hand to make sure that nothing is there before placing one's bowl there. Our measurements would put the maximum height for the bed legs at 18 cm. If they were much taller than that, there would be no need to grope, for one could easily see under the bed with a glance. If they were much shorter than that, even a small bowl wouldn't fit.

Although there is no way of determining the Sugata measures with 100% accuracy, the above considerations suggest that the following estimates are reasonable:

The Sugata cubit = 50 cm.
The Sugata span = 25 cm.
The Sugata fingerbreadth = 2.08 cm.

Applied to the various rules, this would give us a hut 3 x 1.75 meters -- small, but adequate; a rains-bathing cloth 1.5 x .625 meters -- enough to cover one from the waist to the knees; and an skin-eruption covering cloth 1 x .5 meters -- enough to cover one from the waist to just above the knees. All of these figures seem appropriate, and so have been accepted for the purposes of this book.

III.Controversial points: Meals

The Cullavagga (VI.21.1) contains a passage in which the Buddha allows bhikkhus to accept seven kinds of specially arranged meals, in addition to the meals they receive on almsround. The passage runs as follows:

"Now at that time Rajagaha was short of food. People were not able to provide a meal for the Community, but they wanted to provide a designated meal, an invitational meal, a meal by lots, a meal on a day of the waxing or waning of the moon, on Observance (uposatha) days, and on the day after each Observance day. They told this matter to the Blessed One. He said, 'I allow, bhikkhus, a Community meal, a designated meal, an invitational meal, a meal by lots, a meal on a day of the waxing or waning of the moon, on an Observance (uposatha) day, and on the day after an Observance day.'"

Unfortunately, the Canon does not give any detailed explanation of these terms. The Commentary explains Community meals as meals for the entire Community, and the other terms as follows:

"(Having said,) 'Give 1, 2...10 bhikkhus designated from the Community,' they wanted to provide a meal for the bhikkhus they got through that designation. Later, having decided on bhikkhus in the same way (i.e., 1, 2...10 bhikkhus), and having invited them, they wanted to provide a meal for them. Later, they wanted to provide a meal having decided on a lottery. Later, having fixed a date -- the waxing or waning moons, the Observance day or the day after -- they wanted to provide a meal for 1, 2...10 bhikkhus. This is the extent of the meals that fall under the terms "designated meals, invitational meals (the Sub-commentary adds an 'etc.' here.)"

These definitions seem fairly clear: a designated meal is one in which the donors do not specify which bhikkhus are to receive it, but simply ask for x number of bhikkhus from the Community, leaving it up to the bhattuddesaka (the "meal designator" -- the Community official responsible for managing these various meals) to designate who the recipients will be. An invitational meal is one in which the donors decide on the recipients themselves. A lot meal is one in which the recipients are chosen by drawing lots, while the remaining meals -- periodic meals -- are given regularly to a rotating roster of x number of bhikkhus every time the specified date comes around.

However, the Commentary's discussion of how the bhattuddesaka should manage these meals blurs the lines between the first three categories. It gives no detailed discussion of Community meals, but divides designated meals into the following two types:

1a) Meals for which the number of bhikkhus to be designated is equal to the total number of bhikkhus in the Community.

1b) Meals for which the number of bhikkhus to be designated is less than the total number of bhikkhus in the Community.

Invitational meals come in the four types:

2a) Meals to which the entire Community is invited.

2b) Meals to which specific individuals or types of bhikkhus (e.g., no one but senior bhikkhus) are invited.

2c) Meals to which one bhikkhu is invited and asked to bring x number of his friends.

2d) Meals for which the donor simply asks for x number of bhikkhus, without specifying in any way who they should be.

This typology raises two questions. For one, why aren't #1a and #2a grouped under Community meals? Is it because the donor uses the words "designated" and "invited" when announcing his/her plans for the meal? If so, how does one arrange for a Community meal that would not fall into these two types, in line with the fact that a Community meal is said to be a separate category?

The second question is how type #2d differs from a designated meal. Is it, again, because the donor does not use the word "designated" in announcing the meal? If so, the difference is only formal, for the Commentary itself states that the bhattuddesaka is to treat such a meal as he would a designated meal, which shows that in essence it is the same thing.

As we reasoned in the discussion of Pacittiya 32, that rule applies only to invitational meals. If we follow the Commentary's original definitions of the various categories of special meal -- and eliminate types 1a, 2a and 2d as redundant -- it is easy enough to determine in essence which types of meals fall into this category and which don't. If we follow the detailed typologies, though, the distinctions become more a matter of formality and technicalities: For example, if the donor asks the bhattuddesaka to "designate nine bhikkhus from the Community," the meal would not violate Pacittiya 32, but if he simply asked for nine bhikkhus -- even if he did not specify who they were to be -- the meal would be a group meal, and any bhikkhus who ate it would be committing an offense. Or again, if he asked that the entire Community be "designated" to come to his meal, they would not incur a penalty in going, but if he simply asked the entire Community to a meal, they would.

Since the Commentary is a compendium of the opinions of many generations of teachers, it may have been that the definitions of the categories of meals were agreed on by one generation of teachers, and the typologies by another. This would explain the discrepancies between the two. Or it may have been that the entire discussion -- definitions and typologies -- was the product of one generation, who did mean the categories to depend on questions of formalities.

At any rate, as with many areas where the Canon gives no definite guidance, this is an issue where the wise policy for each bhikkhu is to follow the standards of the Community to which he belongs.

IV. Pali formulae: Determination

The articles a bhikkhu must determine for his use have already been mentioned under NP 1, 21, & 24.

Determination, according to the Commentary, may be done in either of two ways: by the body or by word. To determine by the body means to grasp or touch the object in question with any part of the body and to determine in the mind that the object is for one's own particular use, in line with the formula given below. To determine by word means to speak the formula out loud. In this case, if the object is within the reach of the hand, use the same formula as for determination with the body. If it is beyond the reach of the hand, alter the formula, changing imam, this, to etam, that. Articles to be worn -- i.e., robes, the rains-bathing cloth -- must first be dyed the proper color and marked with small round dots at the corners in accordance with Pacittiya 58.

The Canon and commentaries make no mention of any formula to repeat while marking, but the tradition in Thailand is to repeat:

Imam bindu-kappam karomi,

which means, "I make this properly marked."

The words for determination, taking the bowl as an example, are:

Imam pattam adhitthami,

which means, "I determine this bowl" or "I determine this as a bowl."

To determine other requisites, replace the word pattam, bowl, with the appropriate name, as follows:

for the outer robe: sanghatim
for the upper robe: uttarasangam
for the lower robe: antaravasakam
for the sitting cloth: nisidanam
for the skin-eruption cloth: kandu-paticchadim
for the rains-bathing cloth: vassikasatikam
for the sleeping cloth: paccattharanam
for the handkerchief: mukha-puñchana-colam
for other cloth requisites: parikkhara-colam

To determine many cloths of the same sort at the same time, use the plural forms: Change imam to imani; etam to etani; and the -am ending for the name of the article to -ani. For example, to determine many miscellaneous cloth requisites within reach of the hand, the formula is:

Imani parikkhara-colani adhitthami.

A bhikkhu may determine only one of each of the following five items for use at any one time: the bowl, the basic set of three robes, and the sitting cloth. If he wishes to replace an old one with a new one, he must first withdraw the determination of the old item before determining the new one. The formula for withdrawal, again taking the bowl as an example, is:

Imam pattam paccuddharami,

which means, "I relinquish this bowl." To withdraw the determination of other items, replace the word pattam with the appropriate name, as above.

If an item has been stolen, burnt, destroyed, lost, given away, or taken away on trust, its determination automatically lapses, and there is no need to withdraw the determination before determining a new item to replace it. The Commentary explains destroyed as meaning that the bowl or any of the three robes develops a hole of a certain size: for a clay bowl, a hole large enough for a millet grain to pass through; for an iron bowl, a hole large enough to let liquid pass through; for the robes, a complete break at least the size of the fingernail of the small finger, located at least one handspan in from the long edge of the robe, and four fingerbreadths from the short edge of the lower robe, or eight fingerbreadths from the short edge of the upper and outer robes.

Once the robe or bowl develops a hole of this sort, it reverts to the status of an extra robe or bowl. If the owner still wishes to use it, the hole must be mended and the article redetermined before ten days elapse. Otherwise, he is subject to the penalties imposed by NP 1 or 21.

V. Pali formulae: Shared ownership

The topic of shared ownership, together with the various controversies connected with it, are discussed in detail under Pacittiya 59. Here we will simply give the formulae.

There are two formulae for sharing ownership in the presence of the second owner. The first -- taking as an example a piece of robe-cloth within reach of the hand -- is this:

Imam civaram tuyham vikappemi,

meaning, "I share ownership of this robe-cloth with you (plural)."

To place a bowl under shared ownership, change civaram to pattam. For more than one piece of cloth, change imam civaram to imani civarani. For more than one bowl, change imam pattam to ime patte. For articles beyond the reach of the hand, change imam to etam; imani to etani; and ime to ete.

The second formula -- less formal than the first -- is:

Imam civaram itthannamassa vikappemi,

which means, "I share ownership of this robe-cloth with so-and-so." Suppose, for example, that the person's name is Nando. If he is one's senior, change itthannamassa to Ayasmato Nandassa; if he is one's junior, change it to Nandassa Bhikkhuno; if he is a novice, change it to Nandassa Samanerassa. If he is very much one's senior, use the first formula, above. (Mv.I.74.1 shows that the tradition in the Buddha's time was not to use a very senior or respected person's name when referring to him.)

To share a bowl in this way, change civaram to pattam. Other changes, as called for, may be inferred from the previous formulae.

To place a piece of robe-cloth under shared ownership with two persons who are absent, say to a witness:

Imam civaram vikappanatthaya tuyham dammi,

which means, "I give this robe-cloth to you to share." The witness should ask the original owner the names of two bhikkhus or novices who are his friends or acquaintances. In Pali, this is:

Ko te mitto va sandittho va.

After the original owner tells the names, the witness says:

Aham tesam dammi,

which means, "I give it to them."

To rescind the shared ownership, the Vibhanga says that the witness in the last case should say,

Tesam santakam paribhuñja va vissajjehi va yatha-paccayam va karohi,

which means, "Use what is theirs, give it away or do as you like with it."

As for cases in which the article is placed under shared ownership in the presence of the second owner, the Vibhanga gives no formula for rescinding the arrangement. The K/Commentary suggests that the second owner should say,

Mayham santakam paribhuñja va vissajjehi va yatha-paccayam va karohi,

which means, "Use what is mine, give it away or do as you like with it."

The Pubbasikkha Vannana, though, suggests the following formula (for robe-cloth within reach, rescinded by a bhikkhu who is senior to the original owner):

Imam civaram mayham santakam paribhuñja va vissajjehi va yatha-paccayam va karohi,

which means, "Use this robe-cloth of mine, give it away, etc." If the bhikkhu rescinding the shared ownership is junior to the original owner, the verb endings are more formal:

Imam civaram mayham santakam paribhuñjatha va vissajjetha va yatha-paccayam va karotha.

For a bowl, change civaram to pattam. If more than one piece of cloth is involved, the formula begins, Imani civarani mayham santakani.... If more than one bowl, Ime patte mayham santake.... Changes for articles outside the reach of the hand may be inferred from those for the earlier formulae.

VI. Pali formulae: Forfeiture

As noted in the conclusion to the chapter on Nissaggiya Pacittiya rules, articles received in defiance of NP 18, 19, & 22 must be forfeited to a Community. The words of forfeiture in these cases are:

NP 18. For receiving gold and silver (money):

Aham bhante rupiyam patiggahesim. Idam me nissaggiyam. Imaham sanghassa nissajjami.

This means, "Venerable sirs, I have received money. This of mine is to be forfeited. I forfeit it to the Community."

NP 19. For engaging in monetary exchange:

Aham bhante nanappakarakam rupiya-sanvoharam samapajjim. Idam me nissaggiyam. Imaham sanghassa nissajjami.

This means, "Venerable sirs, I have engaged in various types of monetary exchange. This of mine is to be forfeited. I forfeit it to the Community."

NP 22. For asking for a new bowl when one's original bowl is still usable:

Ayam me bhante patto unapañca-bandhanena pattena cetapito nissaggiyo. Imaham sanghassa nissajjami.

This means, "This bowl of mine, venerable sirs, asked for when the (previous) bowl had less than five mends, is to be forfeited. I forfeit it to the Community."

Articles used or received in violation of the remaining NP rules may be forfeited to the Community, to a group, or to an individual. Here only the formulae for forfeiting to an individual will be given. Formulae for rules rarely broken -- e.g., involving bhikkhunis or felted rugs -- are not listed.

NP 1. For an extra robe (or robe-cloth) kept beyond ten days.

Idam me bhante civaram dasahatikkantam nissaggiyam. Imaham ayasmato nissajjami.

This means, "This robe (robe-cloth) of mine, venerable sir, kept beyond ten days, is to be forfeited. I forfeit it to you." If the speaker is senior to the listener, change bhante to avuso. If many pieces of cloth are to be forfeited at once, the forms should be changed to plural:

Imani me bhante civarani dasahatikkantani nissaggiyani. Imanaham ayasmato nissajjami.

For robes beyond the reach of the hand, change idam to etam; imaham to etaham; imani to etani; and imanaham to etanaham. For example, for one robe, one would say:

Etam me bhante civaram dasahatikkantam nissaggiyam. Etaham ayasmato nissajjami.

For more than one robe beyond the reach of the hand, one would say:

Etani me bhante civarani dasahatikkantani nissaggiyani. Etanaham ayasmato nissajjami.

Once the offense has been confessed, the robe (robe-cloth) is to be returned to the original owner, using this formula:

Imam civaram ayasmato dammi,

which means "I give this robe (robe-cloth) to you."

For more than one piece:

Imani civarani ayasmato dammi.

Changes in the formula for robe-cloth beyond the reach of the hand may be inferred from the preceding example. These two formulae for returning cloth are used in every case involving cloth and will not be repeated below.

NP 2. For a robe separated from one for a night or more:

Idam me bhante civaram ratti-vippavuttham aññatra bhikkhu-sammatiya nissaggiyam. Imaham ayasmato nissajjami,

which means, "This robe of mine, separated (from me) for a night without authorization of the bhikkhus, is to be forfeited. I forfeit it to you." Change civaram to dvi-civaram for two robes, and to ti-civaram for three. Other changes, as necessary, may be inferred from the formulae for rule #1, above. The formulae for returning the robe(s) are also given there.

NP 3. For out-of-season robe-cloth kept more than a month:

Idam me bhante akala-civaram masatikkantam nissaggiyam. Imaham ayasmato nissajjami,

which means, "This out-of-season robe-cloth of mine, venerable sir, kept beyond a month, is to be forfeited. I forfeit it to you." For more than one piece of cloth:

Imani me bhante akala-civarani masatikkantani nissaggiyani. Imanaham ayasmato nissajjami.

Other changes, as necessary, may be inferred from the formulae for rule #1.

NP 6. For a robe (robe-cloth) requested from an unrelated householder:

Idam me bhante civaram aññatakam gahapattikam aññatra samaya viññapitam nissaggiyam. Imaham ayasmato nissajjami,

which means, "This robe (cloth) of mine, venerable sir, requested from an unrelated householder at other than the proper occasion, is to be forfeited. I forfeit it to you."

For more than one robe:

Imani me bhante civarani aññatakam gahapattikam aññatra samaya viññapitani nissaggiyani. Imanaham ayasmato nissajjami.

NP 7. For a robe (robe-cloth) requested from an unrelated householder during an allowable occasion, but beyond the allowable limit:

Idam me bhante civaram aññatakam gahapattikam taduttarim viññapitam nissaggiyam. Imaham ayasmato nissajjami,

which means, "This robe (cloth) of mine, requested beyond that (allowable) from an unrelated householder, is to be forfeited. I forfeit it to you."

For more than one robe:

Imani me bhante civarani aññatakam gahapattikam taduttarim viññapitani nissaggiyani. Imanaham ayasmato nissajjami.

NP 8. For a robe (robe-cloth) received after making a stipulation to an unrelated householder:

Idam me bhante civaram pubbe appavarito aññatakam gahapattikam upasankamitva civare vikappam apannam nissaggiyam. Imaham ayasmato nissajjami,

which means, "Without prior invitation, I approached an unrelated householder and made stipulations about a robe (cloth). This robe (cloth) of mine, venerable sir, is to be forfeited. I forfeit it to you."

NP 9. For a robe (robe-cloth) received after making stipulations to two or more unrelated householders, use the same formula as for the preceding rule, changing aññatakam gahapattikam to aññatake gahapattike.

NP 10. For a robe (robe-cloth) received after reminding one's steward too many times:

Idam me bhante civaram atireka-tikkhattum codanaya atireka-chakkhattum thanena abhinipphaditam nissaggiyam. Imaham ayasmato nissajjami,

which means, "This robe (cloth) of mine, venerable sir, produced after more than three reminders, after more than six standings, is to be forfeited. I forfeit it to you."

NP 18 & 19. The formulae for these rules are given at the beginning of this appendix.

NP 20. For an article received in trade:

Aham bhante nanappakarakam kaya-vikkayam samapajjim. Idam me nissaggiyam. Imaham ayasmato nissajjami,

which means, "Venerable sir, I have engaged in various types of trade. This of mine is to be forfeited. I forfeit it to you."

To return the article:

Imam ayasmato dammi,

which means, "I give this to you."

NP 21. For an extra bowl kept beyond ten days:

Ayam me bhante patto dasahatikkanto nissaggiyo. Imaham ayasmato nissajjami,

which means, "This bowl of mine, venerable sir, kept beyond ten days, is to be forfeited. I forfeit it to you."

To return the bowl:

Imam pattam ayasmato dammi.

NP 22. The formula for this rule is given at the beginning of this appendix.

NP 23. For any of the five tonics kept beyond seven days:

Idam me bhante bhesajjam sattahatikkantam nissaggiyam. Imaham ayasmato nissajjami,

which means, "This medicine of mine, venerable sir, kept beyond seven days, is to be forfeited. I forfeit it to you."

To return the medicine:

Imam bhesajjam ayasmato dammi.

NP 25. For a robe (robe-cloth) snatched back in anger:

Idam me bhante civaram bhikkhussa samam datva acchinnam nissaggiyam. Imaham ayasmato nissajjami,

which means, "This robe (cloth) of mine, venerable sir, snatched back after I myself gave it to a bhikkhu, is to be forfeited. I forfeit it to you."

NP 28. For a robe (robe-cloth) offered in urgency kept beyond the robe season:

Idam me bhante acceka-civaram civara-kala- samayam atikkamitam nissaggiyam. Imaham ayasmato nissajjami,

which means, "This robe-cloth-offered-in-urgency of mine, venerable sir, kept beyond the robe season, is to be forfeited. I forfeit it to you."

NP 29. For a robe separated from one for more than six nights:

Idam me bhante civaram atireka-cha-rattam vippavuttham aññatra bhikkhu-sammatiya nissaggiyam. Imaham ayasmato nissajjami,

which means, "This robe of mine, separated (from me) for more than six nights without authorization of the bhikkhus, is to be forfeited. I forfeit it to you." Change civaram to dvi-civaram for two robes, and to ti-civaram for three.

NP 30. For gains intended for the Community that one has diverted to oneself:

Idam me bhante janam sanghikam labham parinatam attano parinamitam nissaggiyam. Imaham ayasmato nissajjami,

which means, "This gift, intended for the Community and knowingly diverted for myself, is to be forfeited. I forfeit it to you."

To return the article:

Imam ayasmato dammi.

VII. Pali formulae: Confession.

Six types of offense may be expiated through confession: thullaccaya, nissaggiya pacittiya, pacittiya, patidesaniya, dukkata, and dubbhasita.

The formula for confessing a patidesaniya is given in the training rules themselves:

Garayham avuso dhammam apajjim asappayam patidesaniyam. Tam patidesemi,

which means, "Friend, I have committed a blameworthy, unsuitable act that ought to be acknowledged. I acknowledge it."

The five remaining types of offenses are confessed as follows: One arranges one's upper robe over the left shoulder, approaches another bhikkhu, kneels down and, with hands raised palm-to-palm in respect, repeats the formula of confession. The bhikkhu to whom the offense is to be confessed must be part of the Community -- i.e., he does not belong to a schismatic faction and has not been suspended -- and he must not be guilty, without having made confession, of the same offense that one is confessing.

If all the bhikkhus in a particular residence are guilty of the same offense, one of them must go to another residence to confess the offense, and then return to let the remaining bhikkhus confess their offenses in his presence, or one after another in the presence of those who have already confessed. If this cannot be arranged, then on the day of the Patimokkha recitation one of the bhikkhus should announce the fact of their common offense in the midst of the gathering. Only then may they go ahead with the recitation.

As bhikkhus are to declare their purity of unconfessed offenses before listening to the Patimokkha, a bhikkhu who listens to the Patimokkha knowing that he has an unconfessed offense must tell one of his neighboring bhikkhus of the offense when the recitation comes to the relevant rule and promise that he will confess it when the recitation is over. Otherwise, if he tells no one, he incurs a pacittiya for telling a conscious lie.

The Cullavagga (IV.14.30) gives a formula for confessing an offense in the presence of another bhikkhu:

Aham avuso ittannamam apattim apanno. Tam patidesemi,

which means, "Friend, I have fallen into an offense of such-and-such a name. I confess it."

The bhikkhu acknowledging the confession says,

Passasi?

which means, "Do you see it (the offense)?"

The bhikkhu confessing the offense says,

Ama, passami,

which means, "Yes, I see it."

The bhikkhu acknowledging the confession then says,

Ayatim sanvareyyasi,

which means, "You should restrain yourself in the future."

The formula most generally used at present is expanded from this. The major changes include a vow, made by the confessant at the end of the exchange, that he will exercise restraint; and the inclusion of the words "many" and "of various sorts" to qualify offense(s) in the original confession. This latter change is to streamline the confession. Rather than confessing each offense of a particular class separately, one gathers them into a single statement. As one is allowed to confess more offenses than one has actually committed, and as it is possible in some cases to commit offenses unknowingly, the current formula has been adopted to cover such unwitting offenses.

Since the formula is repeated by every bhikkhu before the recitation of the Patimokkha, the procedure has become little more than a formality. The Vinaya Mukha thus recommends that a bhikkhu conscious of having committed a particular offense should mention it to the other bhikkhu in their own language before making use of the Pali formula.

If the bhikkhu making confession is junior to the one acknowledging him, the exchange is as follows (taking thullaccaya offenses as an example):

Confessant: Aham bhante sambahula nana-vatthukayo thullaccayayo apattiyo apanno. Ta patidesemi.
Acknowledger: Passasi avuso?
C: Ama bhante, passami.
A: Ayatim avuso sanvareyyasi.
C: Sadhu sutthu bhante sanvarissami. (Three times.)

This last sentence means, "Very well, venerable sir, I will be restrained."

If the bhikkhu making confession is senior to the other bhikkhu, the exchange is as follows:

C: Aham avuso sambahula nana-vatthukayo thullaccayayo apattiyo apanno. Ta patidesemi.
A: Passatha bhante?
C: Ama avuso, passami.
A: Ayatim bhante sanvareyyatha.
C: Sadhu sutthu avuso sanvarissami. (Three times.)

For other categories of offenses, change thullaccayayo to

nissaggiyayo pacittiyayo,
pacittiyayo,
dukkatayo, or
dubbhasitayo,

as the case may be. In confessing dubbhasita offenses, drop the word nana-vatthukayo, as there is only one rule in this class

VIII. A pupil's duties as attendant to his mentor

As mentioned in Chapter 2, one is required to act as one's mentor's personal attendant if he does not already have one. There I sketched out these duties in general terms. What follows is a translation from Mv.I.25.8-19, which lays them out in very specific terms. Some Communities have their members follow these duties to the letter; others have adapted them to fit in with what they see as changes in culture and technology (e.g., bathing practices now differ from what they were then). Even in the latter cases, though, it is useful to have the original standards down in writing as practical guides to mindful action in daily life and sensitivity to one's mentor's needs, for the role of attendant is an excellent opportunity for learning the Dhamma and Vinaya in action on a day-to-day basis. A bhikkhu who approaches this role with the proper attitude will benefit greatly from it, much as Ven. Ananda benefited from the care and attention he brought to bear in attending to the Buddha.

In the following passages, statements in parentheses are from the Commentary; statements in brackets are my own.

Having gotten up early, having taken off his sandals, having arranged his upper robe over one shoulder, the pupil should provide tooth-cleaning sticks [see Pacittiya 40] and water for washing the face. (On the first three days when one is performing these services, one should provide the mentor with three lengths of tooth-cleaning sticks -- long, medium, and short -- and notice which one he takes. If he takes the same length on all three days, provide him only with that length from then on. If he is not particular about the length, provide him with whatever length is available. A similar principle holds for the water: On the first three days, provide him with both warm and cold water. If he consistently takes either the warm or the cold, provide him only with that kind of water from then on. If not, provide him with whatever water is available.) [The Commentary suggests that in "providing" these things, one need only set them out, rather than hand them to the mentor. Once they have been set out, one should proceed to sweep out the bathroom and its surrounding area while the mentor is using the tooth-cleaning sticks and water. Then, while the mentor is using the bathroom, one should proceed to the next step.]

Make a seat ready. If there is conjey, then having washed a bowl, place the conjey near the mentor. When he has drunk the conjey, then having given him water, having received the bowl, having lowered it [so as not to let the washing water wet one's robes], wash it properly without scraping it (i.e., knocking it against the floor) and then put it away. When the mentor has gotten up, remove the seat. If the place is soiled, sweep it.

If the mentor wishes to enter the village for alms, give him his lower robe, receiving the lower robe [he is wearing] from him in return. [This is one of the few passages showing that the practice of having spare robes was already current when the Canon was being compiled.] Give him his belt; give him his upper and outer robe, arranged so that the upper robe forms a lining for the outer one [%]. Having rinsed out the bowl, give it to him while it is still wet [i.e., pour out as much of the rinsing water as possible, but don't wipe it dry].

If the mentor desires an attendant, one should put on one's lower robe so as to cover the three circles all around (see Sekhiyas 1 & 2). Having put on the belt, having put the upper and outer robes together and having put them on, having fastened the ties, having washed and taken a bowl, be the mentor's attendant. Do not walk too far behind him, do not walk too close. (One to two steps behind him is appropriate.) Receive the mentor's bowl and its contents. (If the mentor's bowl is heavy or hot to the touch, take his bowl and give him one's own bowl [which is presumably lighter or less hot to the touch] in return.)

Do not interrupt the mentor when he is speaking. If he is bordering on an offense (e.g., Pacittiya 4 or Sanghadisesa 3), one should speak in an indirect way so as to call him to his senses. (These two duties apply everywhere, not only on almsround.) [The Sub-commentary adds that, unlike the pupil's other duties, these must also be observed even when one is ill.]

Returning ahead of the mentor, one should make a seat ready. Set out water for washing the feet, a foot scraper, and a towel for drying the feet. Having gone to meet him, receive his bowl and robe. Give him his lower robe; receive the lower robe [that he has been wearing] in return. If the upper and outer robes are damp with perspiration, dry them for a short time in the sun's warmth, but do not leave them there long in the sun. Fold up the robes [separately, says the Sub-commentary], keeping the edges four fingerbreadths apart so that neither robe becomes creased in the middle. [One should follow the same practice in folding and hanging one's own robes.] Place the belt in the fold of the robe. [From these statements it would appear the bhikkhus in those days wore only their lower robes while inside their dwellings.]

If there is almsfood, and the mentor wishes to eat, give him water and place the almsfood near him. Offer him drinking water. (If there is enough time before noon, one should wait by the mentor while he is eating, in order to offer him drinking water, and eat one's own meal only when he is finished. If there is not enough time for this, one should simply set out the water and proceed to one's own meal.)

When he has finished eating, then having given him water, receive the bowl, lower it, and wash it properly without scraping it. Then, having emptied out the water, dry it for a short time in the sun's warmth, but do not leave it there long.

Put away the bowl and robes. When putting away the bowl, take the bowl in one hand, feel under the bed or bench with the other hand, and place the bowl there, but do not place it on the bare ground (any place where it will get soiled). When putting away the robe, take the robe with one hand, stroke the other hand along the rod or cord for the robes [to check for any rough spots or splinters on the cord or rod that will rip the cloth], place the robe over the cord or rod with the edges away from one and the fold towards one. (The fold should not be placed on the side of the wall, for if there is a splinter in the wall, it may rip the robe in the middle [making its determination lapse].) [Again, one should follow these same practices in putting away one's own robe and bowl.]

When the mentor has gotten up, remove the seat. Put away the water for washing the feet, the foot-scraper, and the towel for drying the feet. If the place is soiled, sweep it.

If the mentor wishes to bathe, prepare a bath. Prepare a cold bath if he wants a cold one, a hot bath if he wants a hot one.

If the mentor wishes to enter the sauna, knead the chunam (bathing powder), moisten the bathing clay, take a chair for the sauna, and follow closely behind him. Give him the chair, receive his robe in return, and lay it to one side (where there is no soot or smoke). Give him the chunam and clay. If one is able to, enter the sauna, having smeared one's face with the bathing clay and covering oneself front and back.

Sit so as not to encroach on the senior bhikkhus, at the same time not depriving the junior bhikkhus of a seat. Look after the mentor's needs (stoking the fire, providing him with clay and hot water). When he is leaving the sauna, take the chair and, covering oneself front and back, leave the sauna. Provide the mentor with bathing water. When both have bathed, the pupil should come out of the water first, dry himself, and put on his lower robe. Then he should dry off his mentor, give him his lower robe and then his outer robe.

Taking the chair, the pupil should return first, make ready a seat, put out water for washing the feet, a foot-scraper, and a towel for drying the feet. When the mentor has sat down, offer him drinking water.

If the mentor wants one to recite (memorize passages of Dhamma or Vinaya), one should recite. If he wants to interrogate one (on the meaning of the passages), one should answer his interrogation.

If the place where the mentor is staying is soiled, the pupil should clean it if he is able to. First take out the bowl and robe and lay them to one side. Take out the sitting cloth and the sheet and lay them to one side. Then take out the mattress and pillow and lay them to one side.

Having lowered the bed [from its supports], take it out properly, without scraping it (along the floor) or knocking it against the door or door posts, and then lay it to one side. Lower the bench, take it out properly, without scraping it (along the floor) or knocking it against the door or the door posts, and lay it to one side. Take out the supports for the bed...the spittoon...the reclining board [a board or stone for resting the head, arms or elbows] and lay them to one side. Take out the ground-covering, after observing how it was laid down, and put it to one side.

If there are cobwebs, sweep them out, starting from the ceiling and working down. Wipe the windows, the doors, and the corners. If the wall or floor have become moldy [%], moisten a rag, wring it out, and wipe them with it. If the floor of the room is finished with blackening (polished), moisten a rag, wring it out, and wipe the floor with it. If the floor is bare ground, sprinkle it all over with water before sweeping it, so that the dust does not fly up and soil the room. Look for any rubbish and throw it away.

Having dried the ground-covering in the sun, clean it, shake it out, bring it back in, and lay it down as it was laid down before. Having dried the supports for the bed in the sun, wipe them, bring them back, and place them where they were before. Having dried the bed...the bench in the sun, clean them, shake them out, lower them, bring them back in properly without scraping them (against the floor) or knocking them against the door or door posts, and place them where they were placed before. Having dried the mattress and pillow...the sitting cloth and sheet in the sun, clean them, shake them out, bring them back in, and place them where they were before. Having dried the spittoon in the sun, wipe it, bring it back in, and place it where it was before. Having dried the reclining board in the sun, wipe it, bring it back in, and place it where it was before. [One should follow these same procedures in cleaning one's own room.] Put away the bowl and robes [as above].

If dusty winds blow from the east, close the eastern windows. If from the west, close the western windows. If from the north, close the northern windows. If from the south, close the southern windows. If the weather is cool, open the windows by day and close them at night. If the weather is hot, close them by day and open them at night. [Again, one should follow these same procedures in looking after one's own room.]

If a courtyard is dirty, sweep it (%). If a porch...attendance hall...fire hall (sauna)...restroom is dirty, sweep it. If there is no drinking water, provide it. If there is no washing water, provide it. If there is no water in the pitcher for rinsing [in the restroom], pour it into the pitcher.

As noted in Chapter 2, a pupil who is not ill is expected to perform these services for his mentor unless the mentor tells him that he already has another pupil acting as his attendant or the other pupil says that he will accept responsibility for them. On the other hand, if the pupil is ill, the mentor is expected to perform these services for the pupil until the latter recovers. This reflects the Buddha's statement that the pupil should regard the mentor as his father; and the mentor, the pupil as his son. If both bear this relationship in mind, they are sure to prosper in the practice of the Dhamma-Vinaya.